Rewards, Punishments, and Laws
People with a superficial understanding of government often preach that old methods should not be altered, and accepted customs should not be abandoned. A Sage, however, is only interested in the Way, and is not necessarily for or against change-and thus, his decisions to alter old methods or abandon accepted customs is based only on whether or not they are effective right now. He observes and examines things based on the way they are now, and adjusts to deal with them accordingly, rather than going out of his way to use the methods the ancients used, and/or instituting rigid and fixed standards to be applied at all times.
In Lu lived a great shoemaker who was married to a great silk weaver. One day, the couple decided to move to Yueh. However, upon mentioning their plans to a friend, they were told, "You should rethink the move." When the man asked why, the friend's reply was, "You make shoes-but the people of Yueh walk barefooted. Your wife makes silk used for helmets-but the people of Yueh do not use helmets on their heads. Of what use will your skills be in Yueh?"
In this world, even the wisest people will find some goals impossible, even the strongest people will find some objects unmovable, and even the mightiest people will find some opponents unbeatable. For example, even someone as wise as Sage Emperor Yao will not be able to accomplish the great without the support of the people; even someone as strong as Strongman Wu Huo will not be able to lift his own person without the assistance of others; and even someone is as powerful as Meng Pen or Hsia Yu will not be able to achieve constant victory without maintaining the law and using people the right way. And so, the Strongman Wu Huo found several hundred pounds to be light, but his own body to be heavy-not because his body weighed more than several hundred pounds, but because his position would not assist him in lifting his own body. And Li Chu found it easy to see across the longest distances accurately, but difficult to see his own eyelashes-not because the long distances were near and his own eyelashes were far, but because their natural structure would not allow him to view his own eyelashes. And thus, the wise ruler will not blame Wu Huo for not being able to lift himself, and he will not humiliate Li Chu for not being able to see his own eyelashes.
The wise ruler depends on utilizing advantageous circumstances, and he looks for the easiest way, in order to use a minor effort to achieve great deeds and a great reputation. Times, circumstances, and opportunities change, matters can be advantageous or the opposite, and things come and go. Maintain the law and deal with people properly, and then you can observe what people do properly.
The wise ruler observes what people do, but avoids letting people observe his own motives.
Tzu Chang was pulling a cart up a hill, but could not manage the weight. So, he began singing-and this attracted people around him, and caused them to help him take the cart up the hill. Suppose Tzu Chang did not have a method to attract people. Even if he strained himself to exhaustion or death, he still would not have been able to take the cart up the hill. He did not strain himself because he had an effective method of using people.
A ruler should employ the state's capable people. His decisions to appoint and dismiss people should be based on their excellence rather than their reputations.
Meng Sun went hunting and got a young deer. He ordered Ch'in Hsi Pa to bring it back. On the way, however, the mother deer followed and cried, and Ch'in Hsi Pa found this so unbearable that he returned the baby deer to its mother. Then when Meng Sun asked for the baby deer, HsiPa said, "I couldn't bear the mother's crying, so I returned it." Greatly angered, Meng Sun fired him on the spot.
However, just months later, he rehired him and appointed him as his son's tutor. When Meng Sun's driver heard about his, he curiously asked, "Why did you blame him earlier, and then call him back and appoint him as tutor to your own son?" "Well," Meng Sun said, "he could not bear the ruin of a baby deer-so how could he possibly bear the ruin of my son?"
The difficulty of persuasion lies mainly in knowing and adapting to someone else's heart-and-mind, and not so much in having the necessary information to plead your view, having skill in disputation in order to make your ideas clear, or having the prudence to fully utilize your abilities.
When persuading: If you discuss moneymaking with someone who is concerned with virtue, he will end up regarding you as low, and either neglect or dismiss you. If you discuss virtue with someone who is concerned with moneymaking, he will end up regarding you as tactless and unperceptive, and he will not consider your statements. If you discuss virtue with someone who acts like he is concerned with virtue but is inwardly concerned with moneymaking, he will outwardly pretend to be receptive, but inwardly disregard you; and if you discuss moneymaking with him, he will outwardly pretend to disregard you, but inwardly regard your statements.
With a ruler, if you talk about high caliber people, he might think you are suggesting he is inferior to them; and if you talk about low caliber people, he might think you are trying to make yourself look good in order to manipulate him. If you discuss his likes, he might suppose you want to take advantage of him; and if you discuss his hates, he might suppose you are trying to meddle with his patience. If you speak too straightforwardly to him, he might think you are deficient and avoid you; and if you speak too fancily and explanatory, he might think you are conceited, and disregard you. If you are too unspecific when presenting your ideas, he might conclude you are too cowardly to express what you mean; and if you are too expressive and verbose, might regard you as someone who wants to look down at him.
Such are the difficulties in persuasion. One must take heed of them.
When it comes to persuasion, the key is to feature what someone wants to promote and downplay what he wants to conceal. When presenting suggestions, emphasize the good points of what you want to promote, and the bad points of what you want to discredit. Show how your suggestions correspond with the person's own interests. Praise and esteem the people, actions, and aims similar to his. Then, as you gain the ruler's trust and he comes to regard you as honest but loyal, you can be more forthright and open in weighing all pros and cons.
A rich man from Sung had a mud fence on his property that was damaged in a rainstorm. His son remarked, "If we do not rebuild the fence immediately, robbers might come." His neighbor also made a similar remark. Later that evening, the man was indeed robbed, and lost a great deal of property-and from then on, the man and his family had great regard for the son's judgment, but were suspicious of the neighbor.
Duke Wu of Cheng planned to invade Hu. In order to make the ruler of Hu let down his guard, he first gave his daughter in marriage to him. Later, he told his ministers, "I want to start a military campaign," and asked what region to invade. When one of them advised him to invade Hu, he angrily replied, "Hu is our brother state-how dare you suggest invading it!" and he thereupon had the minister executed. When the Ruler of Hu heard about this, he assumed that Cheng was on friendly terms with him, and did not guard himself against a potential invasion from it. And then not long afterwards, the people of Cheng made a surprise attack on Hu, and easily conquered the region.
In both of these cases, the two men made valid and truthful statements, yet they both ended up causing problems for themselves-one incurred his neighbor's distrust, and the other was executed. Though neither of these two men lacked the correct information, both of them used it the wrong way.
Long ago, Mi Tzu Hsia became popular with the ruler of Wei State.
At the time, the laws of Wei State said: "The punishment for secretly using the ruler's carriage without permission is a double foot amputation." One night, someone went into the palace and told Mi Tzu Hsia that his mother was sick. Upon hearing this, Mi Tzu Hsia forged a fake request from the ruler, used his carriage, and took it to go see his mother. When the ruler came to find out about this, not only was he not angry, he only had good things to say, and remarked, "What a filial child! Over his concern for his mother, he went so far as to risk having his feet cut off!"
Another time, Mi Tzu Hsia was walking outside with the ruler and eating a peach, and, tasting how delicious it was, offered the remaining half to the ruler. The latter then remarked, "Your love for me is truly genuine-so much so that you have put your own appetite aside, and concerned yourself with offering me the food you find delicious!"
But later, when Mi Tzu Hsia was older and less attractive, and the ruler was not so enamored with him anymore, a charge was brought against him by the ruler, who remarked, "Don't forget-this man once stole my carriage, and on another occasion he offered me a peach he had already eaten half of!"
Mi Tzu Hsia was first praised and later condemned for actions that remained the same-and this was because the ruler's love for him had changed into disdain.
When pleading with, explaining to, discussing with, or attempting to influence powerful people, first observe the person's particular loves and hates.
A powerful person has dangerous points that must be avoided, just like how a dragon that can be tamed, ridden, and played with also has dangerous sharp points that must be avoided. A prospective persuader who avoids them has gone a long way in being a masterful persuader.
MotivesA ruler said to a wise man, "It is said that 'A state will encounter problems if the ruler does not acquire the proper information from enough perspectives.' However, in my experience managing the state, I find that even if I consult with everybody, there is still disorder-and in fact, it the more I consult, the more disorder there usually is. Why is this?"
The wise man said, "Well, the proverb you quoted is referring to a ruler who asks the right sources for information pertaining to the state. One source might be able to know it while another might not-and in such a case, various sources of honest and responsible information can be picked up and weighed against each other. However, in your state, all sources are biased in order to accord with the opinion of one influential man-Mr. Chi-; and thus, with every source having this shared bias and viewpoint, your consulting with many sources is more or less like consulting with just one."
Fortune-telling methods are by no means able to guarantee wins or foretell military outcomes. Believing in the conclusions of such methods is by all means foolish.
Nowadays, everyone knows about the teachings of the Confucian and the Mohist schools.
The Confucians highly esteem Confucius, while the Mohists highly esteem Mo Tzu.
In the few hundred years since the deaths of Confucius and Mo Tzu, eight distinct Confucian sects and three distinct Mohist sects have emerged and are currently being followed; and although they all have different teachings and practices, each insists that it has the true teaching of Confucius or Mo Tzu. We obviously cannot bring Confucius or Mo Tzu back to life-so who can say for certain which of today's Confucian and Mohist sects have the most accurate version of Confucius's and Mo Tzu's teachings?
Furthermore, though Confucius and Mo Tzu had different teachings, both of them claimed to adhere to the Way of the Ancient Sage Kings Yao and Shun. We obviously cannot bring Yao or Shun back to life-so who can say for certain whether the Confucians or the Mohists have the more accurate version of their Way?
Moreover, since the Confucian and Mohist schools are in disagreement over the teachings of Confucius and Mo Tzu, even though both of those men lived only a few centuries ago, how can anyone even begin to know the Way of Yao and Shun-two men who lived a few millenniums ago! We obviously cannot really be sure of much.
And as for those who assert that they are following the Way of Ancient Kings and are certain of their descriptions of the Way of Yao and Shun-they must be doing so out of foolishness or deception! Should a wise ruler depend on teachings that come from foolishness or deception, and are so varied and contradictory?
The wise ruler observes all sides of a situation in order to obtain what is authentic.
The wise ruler listens, but makes speakers responsible for what they say.
The wise ruler investigates matters by maneuvering information, in order to use the known to find out the unknown.
The wise ruler listens to an adequate variety of sources, and does not only take advice from high-ranking ministers.
The wise ruler does not allow ministers to spread gossip and rumors.
The wise ruler investigates and verifies the information he receives.
The wise ruler is discreet, does not allow secrets to become public, and does not tell every minister what the others said.
The wise ruler is not easily swayed.
The wise ruler knows, but avoids being known.
The wise ruler, in conducting himself with women, enjoys them without allowing them to manipulate and control him with their requests.
The wise ruler, in dealing with his closer associates, enjoys them, but keeps them responsible for what they say and do, and does not let them express inappropriate or unasked for opinions.
The wise ruler, in dealing with his relatives, keeps them responsible for the results of their advice, and does not promote them erratically.
T'an T'ai appeared to be a superior person. Confucius regarded him as having great potential, and made him a disciple. But then after interacting with him for a while, Confucius discovered that his conduct did not match what he appeared to be.
Ts'ai Yu's speech was brilliant and cultivated. Confucius regarded him as having great potential, and made him a disciple. But then after interacting with him for a while, Confucius discovered that his wisdom did not match his speaking skill.
Thus Confucius said, "Should I pick people based on their appearance or speech? I made a mistake with T'an-t'ai and Ts'ai Yu."
So even Confucius-who was supremely wise-had to acknowledge that his judgment was mistaken. And today's speakers are more articulate than Ts'ai Yu and more impressive appearing than T'an T'ai, while today's rulers are more easily deceived than Confucius-so if the latter merely assign people to office based on their appearance and speech, won't mistakes be easily made?
By only observing the color and tin percentage of a certain metal mixture, even Ou Yeh could not be certain of the sword's sharpness. But by seeing it easily slice and cut a variety of items, anyone could know much about its effectiveness.
By only examining the shape of a horse's teeth, even Po Lo could not be certain of the horse's quality. But by seeing it carry a full carriage for hundreds of miles, anyone could know much about its effectiveness.
By looking at someone's face and clothing and listening to his speech, even Confucius could not be certain of what sort of a person he is. But by seeing what he does when put in a position, anyone could know much about his worthiness.
Rather than altering the statements you hear, compare them with actions and see whether or not the two correspond with each other.
The superior person takes the inner feelings, but leaves the outer appearances. He is fond of the inner qualities, but hates the outer decorations.
A man, wanting to purchase a new pair of shoes for himself, measured his feet at home, and went to the marketplace. However, upon arriving there, he noticed that he had forgotten to bring the measurements, and he decided to go back and retrieve them. But by the time he made the trip and arrived back at the marketplace, it was closed for the day.
Upon arriving back home, he told his wife what had happened. "Why didn't you just try the shoes with your own feet?" asked the wife. "I have confidence in my measurements," the man replied, "but not in my own feet."
AuthorityA Ruler should avoid the possibility of having other be in a position where they will benefit from his misfortune.
The Sage Ruler, rather than relying on people to do him good with love, institutes a policy that makes them have no way to do him wrong or avoid doing him good. Relying on the former is dangerous-it is depending on what very few will actually voluntarily do. Relying on the latter is safe-for one can make an entire state obedient and submissive be ensuring that there is no way people can do him wrong. And thus, considering how a ruler should obviously have more consideration for the many than for the few, he should focus on law more than virtue.
It is dangerous for a ruler to trust others, or let others be in control of what he wants-for this makes it possible for others to manipulate him.
The wise ruler utilizes advantages, counteracts disadvantages, and does not overvalue minor advantages and thereby neglect of major ones.
Misfortunes can come when a ruler does not pursue major advantages he knows of, and does not do anything to stop early stage major misfortunes he knows of.
If a firefighting captain transports containers of water to the fire, he will only be doing one person's function, and will not achieve much in the way of results.
However, if he uses authority to give orders to the others, he can preside over many people.
Therefore, Sages and wise rulers do not neglect the big picture in order to pursue what is trifling.
By pursuing the right course, and endeavor can be accomplished without difficulties and great efforts.
Li K'uei constantly told his guards, "Be careful and aware-an enemy attack might come at any time!"
But after the enemies had not attacked for months, the guards became exhausted, neglected their duty, and lost most of their loyalty to and confidence in Li K'uei.
And then not long afterwards, the Ch'ins attacked and destroyed them.
This is the misfortune of a lack of loyalty and confidence.
Petty loyalty can be the betrayer of major loyalty.
Problems can occur if people lack confidence in the ruler, inferiors lack obedience to their superiors, or the ruler relies too much on the premier.
The wise ruler, in doing favors, is in sole charge of resources, and does not allow his ministers to give them based on their own preferences.
If the ruler lacks objectivity, is easily provoked, lacks prudence, is excessively sensitive, is angered by all things, is too quick to use weapons or thoughtless in entering wars and making invasion, and he does not properly train the military or the agricultural industry, ruin is possible.
Even if a ruler is wise, he should avoid being excessively meddlesome, and he should let things find their proper place.